Fluid Reasoning: What Does it Mean?

Photo Credit: education-evaluations.com

Fluid reasoning.  I often see this listed on neuropsychological and psycho-educational testing but what does it mean and how does it impact education? Fluid reasoning is the ability to solve new/unusual problems without relying completely on past experiences and information. Fluid reasoning is related to math achievement, written expression, and to a lesser degree, reading skills.

James, my most academically skilled child has a relative weakness in fluid reasoning.  He falls into the borderline range (below low average) with a standard score of 74.  James is a great problem solver as long as the problem is straightforward. If you confuse him in ANY way in the problem he has NO idea how to find the solution.  This is an example of a problem with fluid reasoning skills.  Margaret has a fluid reasoning standard score of 85 which puts her in the low average range.  I know her fluid reasoning ability is greatly impacted by her inattention (executive functioning) issues. Joseph scored a 79, which is right at the borderline/low average score range, meaning his fluid reasoning impacts his learning.

Working memory impacts fluid reasoning. Many tests that determine fluid reasoning use one of two methods to determine fluid reasoning.  One is using a rapid-timed test.  This method relies more heavily on someone's capacity for working memory. The second method uses an untimed test. The untimed method does not rely as much on working memory and gives more time to use other cognitive functions to complete the task. I know for Joseph, due to his slow processing speed, he can show his intelligence and fluid reasoning skills better with an untimed test. If you have a child with impaired processing speed it is important you ask for some of the testing to be untimed to allow your child to show their ability!

What is the Impact of Fluid Reasoning?
Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning tends to be lower in children who met the criteria for the following psychiatric disorders: bipolar disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional disorder, conduct disorder, substance use disorders, and specific phobia. James, my child with the lowest fluid reasoning score, has ADHD and Autism along with battling low levels of depression so I see this correlation personally. Academically, here are some things you may see your child exhibit if they are struggling with fluid reasoning:

• Has difficulty with recognizing, forming, and understanding concepts.
• Has difficulty with determining a relationship in a pattern.
• Has difficulty with drawing conclusions from information that is given to them.
• Has difficulty with understanding the consequences of an issue or action.
• Has difficulty with solving complex problems.
• Has difficulty with understanding and using "and logic."
• Has difficulty with  understanding and using "or logic."
• Has difficulty with following a logical pattern through to the end.
• Has difficulty with math and math reasoning.
• Needs to rely on language to help with comprehension of new concepts and complex problems.
• Displays difficulty with using past knowledge in new situations.
• May appear confused with demands when given a task.

What can be done to help my child learn?
Classroom modifications, whether the child is homeschooled or in a public school setting, are important things to consider to help your child succeed in their education.  Here are some examples of classroom modifications:

• Rely more on verbal instruction than visual instruction or aids.
• Pair verbal instruction with visual information so you can verbally explain what the child is viewing.
• Ask clear, concise questions versus open-ended questions.
• Rely more on verbal responses versus production of graphic material.
• Test verbally for knowledge whenever possible.
• Ask students to show all their work when possible and give partial credit if they can show the correct process.
• Explain to the child how they will be graded on an assignment so they understand the assignment requirements.
• Use a testing strategy familiar with the child and keep the questions simple and straightforward.

Besides classroom modifications here are some classroom accommodations to help your child/student:

• Provide all instructions for tasks verbally if the child is verbal.
• Encourage the child to verbalize thought processes to help clarify their thinking.
• Rely on the students verbal memory skills to teach problem solving though repetition and recall (kill and drill).
• Teach strategies for problem solving including giving the proper sequence of a process so it can be memorized.
• Provide repetition and review of concepts to ensure over-learning of concepts.
• Teach mechanical arithmetic in an organized, simple, step-by-step fashion with verbal instruction.
• Use real objects and manipulative when teaching concepts.
• Teach using strategies that increase understanding and learning, such as verbalizing thought processes on a problem or procedure, along with providing lists of steps to take to complete a concept or task.
• Teach problem-solving techniques in the context where they will most likely be applied.
• Teach and emphasize reading comprehension so the student can learn to read and re-read material for learning comprehension.
• Teach verbalizing strategies to help the student organize written work into sequential steps.
• Adjust the difficulty of the task where possible and keep instruction simple and straightforward.
• When teaching concepts avoid complex instruction, figurative language, and complicated or lengthy directions/instructions.
• Watch for problems with organizational skills and social skills since these are often impaired.
• Locate a peer helpers to help the child stay on task.
• Start a task and complete one example with the child so the child has a correct model to use to solve the rest of the work.
• Provide a practice test with questions similar to the actual test.
• Weight grades in favor of concrete information and skills acquired instead of creative use or application of concepts and skills.
• Due to difficulty with deductive reasoning, the student may experience problems using a learned procedure or rule to solve problems, so provide various examples of how the rule or procedure can be used across different situations. 
• Due to difficulty with inductive reasoning, the student may experience confusion with discovery learning in which the student is expected to arrive at a rule to explain examples, so the student appears to work best when a rule is stated or a well defined set of steps is established to solve a problem.
• To promote understanding and generalization in use of a rule or procedure, clearly describe the rule or procedure and provide numerous concrete examples.
• Break complex tasks or procedures into component parts.
• Help the student sort our relevant from irrelevant information when solving a problem.
• Move slowly when presenting new information and tie new concepts into previously mastered concepts and information.
• Teach new information in groups or families and clarify how the items or examples are alike.
• Provide a routine or practiced sequence for approaching a difficult or complex task.
• Provide structured opportunities for the student to use a concept or skill in real life contexts.
• Consider using a teaching assistant, volunteer or peer tutor to work individually with the student to teach and demonstrate a new skill or concept.
• Explain the purpose of an assignment in order to make the task meaningful to the student, since they may not independently perceive the relationship between completing a task and greater learning outcomes.
• Make an effort to explain in clear, concrete terms why a procedure is being used in a particular problem.
• The student demonstrates reasoning difficulties that might impede understanding of instruction. A study guide might be beneficial to help the student organize information, identify the most relevant information and provide a conceptual framework to understand instruction (or passage reading).

Here are some specific suggestions for math:

• Model problem solving through talking aloud.
• Teach math mnemonic strategies that specifically identify the steps for solving problems.
• Teach patterns and relationships such as skip-counting or patterns on 100s chart to help learn multiplication facts. 
• Attach number-line to desk to help with number sense and pattern recognition. 
• Specifically teach the way a number or problem can be represented.
• Provide manipulatives in order to help make information concrete and less abstract.
• Have students explain their strategies when problem solving to expand solving options.
• Require the student to show their work.

Here are some specific suggestions for reading and reading comprehension:

• Use graphic organizers to help summarize information.
• Model self-monitoring skills while reading, demonstrating how to stop and ask oneself if material/words have been understood.
• Teach cues for identifying main ideas such as looking for transition words.

Some suggestions for writing strategies:

• Use graphic organizers to help sequence information for effective communication.
• Model brainstorming for generation of ideas.
• Explicitly teach about genres and writing to an audience.
• Present models of good writing with guidance in determining why the writing was effective for its purpose.

Current Studies on Fluid Reasoning

Fluid reasoning, beyond any other cognitive or numerical ability, predicts future math performance. This study by Green et al. (2016) is small, only 69 kids, but the results of the study showed children with higher levels of fluid reasoning have a higher likelihood of showing higher levels of math achievement beyond what can be explained by age, vocabulary, or spatial reasoning skills.

In a study by Pagani et al. (2017), all most 5,000 students at the 7th grade level had their scores in fluid reasoning examined and tracked in Canada.  As students dropped out of school or failed to graduate within two years after expected graduations their fluid reasoning scores were examined. It was found that for every standard deviation a child fell below the norm increased their risk of dropping out of school before graduation by 21%!  This shows you how big an impact fluid reasoning can have on a child and a low score in fluid reasoning IS a learning disability!

Dehn (2017) acknowledges the strong relationship between working memory and fluid reasoning.  What was interesting is he went further and conducted neuroimaging (brain scans) and found the prefrontal cortex is active during fluid reasoning/working memory tasks.  This area of the brain (dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex) is the SAME area that controls attention and inhibition.  So if your child has ADHD then they likely have lower working memory and fluid reasoning abilities since that is the same area of the brain. 

A watershed model was proposed by Kievit et al. (2016) to show the interdependent relationship of fluid intelligence (fluid reasoning)  with processing speed and working memory.  This paper says that white matter organization affects processing speed and processing speed affects fluid intelligence. Again, I see this in my children.  I suspect Joseph has diffuse white matter brain injury across his entire brain.  He does have the lowest processing speed and; therefore, low fluid reasoning. Margaret, who I KNOW has diffuse white matter brain injury to part of her brain has a low score for processing speed (but higher than Joseph) and, again, I see an impact to her fluid reasoning.

Wrap Up

I hope this post has been helpful!  As always, the links to resource material are embedded into the post for your reading pleasure! Researching the impacts of fluid reasoning has been valuable to me since I am the teacher of my children.  It explains many of the issues I see in my children and their learning process. I hope you will be able to find ways to help improve your child's learning! 

Feeling Recharged For Homeschooling!

Photo credit: Homeschool-Life.com

My blog has been slow since I have been working on many things including my children being in a public school online.  Once we got done spending our time in public school online to qualify the Empowerment Scholarship I think we all needed a break!  So we took a break and just relaxed for a bit.  Now that July is upon me, my thoughts are back to homeschooling, and what we are going to do this school year.  This year I was able to attend my local homeschool convention.  I must say, if you have never gone to one, GO!  I feel recharged and full of some good ideas to help my children!  What a great way to feel to start the next academic phase of my children's education!

I was able to attend several workshops at the Arizona Families for Home Education (AHFE) convention. There were some that I thought were a real stand out and I wanted to share with you some of the ideas I learned. One of the workshops I liked was Monica Irvine's discussion on scheduling.  Having multiples we live, and died, by the schedule from the time we brought the children home until they were five and I went back to work for awhile.  I have tried to make a schedule once or twice before but we did not stick to it.  This year, since I have the addition of ESA money, it is vitally important to make a schedule and stick with it.  A schedule will be the only way we can time manage our day with therapy and the schooling that needs to be completed.  The second, and truly most important thing I learned, is to make sure I schedule some fun time in with the children.  I often forget that the kids need some time to just have fun with me versus being the person always making them do the not so fun things in life (grooming, cleaning, and school).  I will be putting game/fun time with mom into our schedule this year so that will be my commitment to them!

The workshop by Heather Haupt discussed why movement helps the brain to form neural connections.  I have experience this first hand!  The way I got Margaret to learn spelling words was to make a cheer out of them.  Joseph likes to march to the letters or drum.  He LOVES drumming ALL OVER EVERYTHING!  LOL  So he taps out a beat on the table as the learns his words.  Now I know why this is an effective teaching technique for them and I need to work on incorporating more movement into their lessons.

Beth Mora gave a great presentation on how to develop an educational plan for children with ADHD, Dyslexia, and Dysgraphia.  Honestly though, her S.O.A.P. method is great for any child with a disability or not.  She explains we need to study our children.  We need to understand their quirks, when they learn best, how they learn best, their love language, and to put all the information into a notebook.  By doing this we can remind ourselves WHY we are homeschooling in those tough moments and HOW we can help our children best by using their love language.  She covered a lot more but her lecture notes can be delivered to your email box by simply clicking on her name.  I hyperlinked all the speakers to their website.

Overall, I really enjoyed the convention.  There was a lot of great moments, I got to meet a lot of great parents, and I am looking forward to the next convention in October for special needs and gifted students.  I am hoping I can get a speaking engagement there so I can discuss the Empowerment Scholarship, the law, how to advocate for your children with their doctors/therapists, how to interpret testing in IEPs or testing completed by neuropsychologists or psychologists for the homeschool environment, how to teach multiple disabled children at one time, and how to fit therapy and everything else into your day.  I know I would be happy to share what I have learned homeschooling my children since they have been old enough to sit up in a high chair.  I have learned a lot over the last ten years and would love to share!

Letter Request Initial Educational Testing per IDEA

Okay, I know I homeschool but I still engage in educational advocacy for others.  Why?  Because I feel like I have a lot to offer others in the way of service, and to be honest, I HATE seeing how public schools abuse/misuse special needs students!  So my help for today is how to request educational testing. You must request the start of educational testing!  Should you HAVE to? NO! See here, here, here, here, and here on the case law.  BUT most schools will do nothing until you speak up and start advocating for your child!  Here is a sample letter to request testing by the school district.

Please double check the law quoted in here since the regulations can move from time to time.  I hope you find this helpful!

Dear (Principal,Guidance Counselor, or School Psychologist's name),

I would like to request comprehensive educational testing for my child ________________ who is in _____ grade at __________________school. 

I would like a full psycho-educational evaluation together with appropriate testing for learning disabilities. I request my child be tested in all suspected areas of disability (34 CFR 300.304), including the areas (in this area to add any specific disability such as of auditory processing, executive function, OT, speech and language, reading disability, etc).

I understand I need to sign a consent form so the school can conduct the evaluation (34 CFR 300.300). If I do not hear from you in three days I will call to set up a time to sign the consent form.

After testing, and at least 5 days prior to attending the IEP team meeting to discuss the testing results [34 CFR 300.613(a)], I request I have a chance to review the result and ask any questions I have with the evaluator so that I may be an active part of the team (34 CFR 300.321).

I understand the school system has 60 days to complete testing and hold a meeting to discuss eligibility [34 CFR 300.301(c)(1)(i)]. Please note, at the IEP meeting I will be recording the meeting and any subsequent IEP meetings. I want to make sure I do not miss anything and an audio recording will help me immensely. I look forward to meeting with you on that date. 

Sincerely,
(your name)

When you deliver your letter to the school you need to do so in one of two methods.

Method 1: Write the letter and print out two copies.  Take one copy to the post office and send the letter certified mail with signature card and return receipt. Once you get the signature card back take it and staple it to the other copy you saved.  This copy should then be placed in a file folder, or better yet, hole punched and put into a three ring binder you use and organize for your child each year.

Method 2: Print off two copies.  Take both copies into the front office and ask the secretary to stamp both copies as received with the school stamp WITH DATE! You will give her one of the copies to deliver and the other will be retained for your files.

It is important you keep up with ALL paperwork and have it stored in one place.  I also like to scan all paperwork and store it in a cloud.  I like Dropbox for this purpose because it accepts all file types (so audio records along with paper docs) and it is easy to share files if I wish to do so.  I am not associated with Dropbox in any way.  I just like their product. :)  I hope this helps. If you have questions please write me a post.  I will answer your questions to the best of my abilities.

Executive Functioning and Its Impact on Learning

Executive functioning is a complex issue.  I know since all my children have executive functioning issues! The real question is how does executive functioning issues impact learning in both the homeschool and public education environment?

First, let's discuss homeschool.  It is easier, when you homeschool, to address executive functioning issues because you can tailor a child'e learning environment around their disabilities.

So what is executive functioning?

WebMD defines executive functioning as a set of mental skills that help you get things done. These skills are controlled by an area of the brain called the frontal lobe.

Executive function helps you:

• Manage time
• Pay attention
• Switch focus
• Plan and organize
• Remember details
• Avoid saying or doing the wrong thing
• Do things based on your experience

When executive function isn’t working as it should, your behavior is less controlled. This can affect
your ability to:

• Work or go to school
• Do things independently
• Maintain relationships

This is a huge problem for children with ADHD, depression, and learning disabilities. These conditions are often associated with issues with executive functioning. 

How does executive functioning impact homeschool?

When you have a child with executive functioning problems you cannot expect them to manage their time, day, or classwork.  They will have a difficult time organizing information and paying attention to the task at hand.  They will have problems with switching between tasks and are horrible multi-taskers. This means you will need to give them more one-on-one attention in both tasks and academics.  For my three children this means I have to teach them all separately.  They cannot be taught as a group in reading and math.  We do these separately.  For science, history, and social studies we learn these together.  I often have James or Margaret read while the others listen and ask questions. Since retaining information is also an executive function issue and an issue with working memory (another common problem with EF and in my children) we often will repeat the same lesson 2 to 4 times in the same week.  This helps the children to retain the information they are learning. This is something I can do in a homeschool setting that would not typically occur in the public school setting.

How does executive functioning impact school?

Executive functioning in a public school setting can be a nightmare and this is one of the reasons why I enjoy homeschooling.  It is often called by parents an "invisible" disability.  The signs are often subtle but there. Then there is the challenge for parents to figure out the symptoms are issues of executive functioning and request a school district to test for EF issues. 

So which tests can tell if a child has a problem with executive function issues? Well, the sky is the limit!  LOL   There are a LARGE verity of tests, partially because EF covers so many functional areas, so it is hard to say which test could be used to test your child.  Some of the more common tests are:

• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
• Category Test
• Stroop Test
• Trail Making Test-B
• WAIS Subtests of Similarities and Block Design
• Porteus Maze Test
• Multiple Errands Test (MET)
• Serial Sevens
• Mini-Mental State Exam

These tests should be used in conjunction with other other testing to examine Intellectual functioning, Academic achievement, Language processing, Visuospatial processing, Attention/ concentration, Verbal learning and memory, Visual learning and memory, Speed of processing, Sensory-perceptual functions, Motivation, and Personality assessment. All of these tests play a role in defining issues with executive functioning and other learning disabilities. Most of these tests are best completed by a neuropsychologist.  I promise you a school district will never have a neuropsychologist on staff no matter what they say.  If it does ever happen someone please let me know but I feel confident in my statement. Why? It is because a neuropsychologist is a specialist and schools tend to only employ psychologist for testing. 

What is a neuropsychologist and how are they different from a school/typical psychologist?

There are basically three types of psychology: clinical, school, and neuropsychology. Clinical psychologists assess and treat children with a wide variety of psychological problems, but particular with emotional/behavioral issues. They may be found working in hospitals, community health centers, or private practice. Although most clinical psychologists are generalists, who work with a wide variety of populations and problems, some may specialize in a specific population and specific disorders (e.g. attachment or post-traumatic stress disorder). They are trained in universities or professional schools of psychology and may not be very familiar with school settings. Clinical psychologists provide both assessment and treatment (psychotherapy).

School psychologists are involved in enhancing the development of children in educational settings. They assess children's psychoeducational abilities and recommend actions to facilitate student learning and overall school functioning. They are typically trained in the Schools of Education at universities and work in school systems, community-based agencies, or private practice. A few may specialize in a particular school-related problem such as learning disabilities or ADHD. While specializing in educational issues, they may not be well trained in medical-based disabilities and disorders. School psychologists usually administer both norm-based psychological tests and criterion-referenced educational (achievement) tests.

Neuropsychologists represent a specialized discipline within the field of psychology that mostly focuses on cognition (the ability to think, remember, learn, etc.) in relation to the effects of brain damage and organic brain disease. A neuropsychologist can administer standardized psychological and neuropsychological tests to patients in private office and hospital settings.

Why is a neuropsychologist examination helpful? 

A pediatric neuropsychologist work closely with schools to help them provide appropriate educational programs for the child. There are five major reasons why a thorough neuropsychological evaluation performed by an pediatric neuropsychologist is superior to a psychoeducational evaluation. These are the inadequate range of a psychoeducational evaluation, the training of the personnel performing psychoeducational evaluations, the narrow focus of psychoeducational evaluations, the level of performance model employed in psychoeducational evaluations, and the failure of psychoeducational evaluations to assess brain behavior relationships. The school and general psychologist tend to focus on achievement and skills needed for academic success. Generally, they do not diagnose learning or behavior disorders caused by altered brain function or development.

Even in the homeschool setting this testing is very helpful to the parent so the parent can understand the learning deficits and strengths of their child.  This will help the parents to better teach their child in the home setting.

Children are referred by a doctor, teacher, school psychologist, or other professional because of one or more problems, such as:

• Difficulty in learning, attention, behavior, socialization, or emotional control; 
• A disease or inborn developmental problem that affects the brain in some way; or 
• A brain injury from an accident, birth trauma, or other physical stress. 

A neuropsychological evaluation assists in better understanding your child’s functioning in areas such as memory, attention, perception, coordination, language, and personality. This information will help you and your child’s teacher, therapists, and physician provide treatments and interventions for your child that will meet his or her unique needs.

A pediatric neuropsychologist can evaluate school-age child many areas such as:

• General intellect 
• Achievement skills, such as reading and math 
• Executive skills, such as organization, planning, inhibition, and flexibility 
• Attention 
• Learning and memory 
• Language 
• Visual–spatial skills 
• Motor coordination 
• Behavioral and emotional functioning 
• Social skills 

Some abilities may be measured in more detail than others, depending on the child’s needs. A detailed developmental history and data from the child’s teacher may also be obtained. Observing your child to understand his or her motivation, cooperation, and behavior is a very important part of the evaluation. Emerging skills can be assessed in very young children. However, the evaluation of infants and preschool children is usually shorter in duration, because the child has not yet developed many skills.

So what can the results from the testing tell you?

By comparing your child’s test scores to scores of children of similar ages, the neuropsychologist can
create a profile of your child’s strengths and weaknesses. The results help those involved in your child’s care in a number of ways.

Testing can explain why your child is having school problems. For example, a child may have difficulty reading because of an attention problem, a language disorder, an auditory processing problem, or a reading disability. Testing also guides the pediatric neuropsychologist’s design of interventions to draw upon your child’s strengths. The results identify what skills to work on, as well as which strategies to use to help your child.

Testing can help detect the effects of developmental, neurological, and medical problems, such as epilepsy, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, or a genetic disorder. Testing may be done to obtain a baseline against which to measure the outcome of treatment or the child’s development over time.

Different childhood disorders result in specific patterns of strengths and weaknesses. These profiles of abilities can help identify a child’s disorder and the brain areas that are involved. For example, testing can help differentiate between an attention deficit and depression or determine whether a language delay is due to a problem in producing speech, understanding or expressing language, social shyness, autism, or cognitive delay. Your neuropsychologist may work with your physician to combine results from medical tests, such as brain imaging or blood tests, to diagnose your child’s problem.

Most importantly, testing provides a better understanding of the child’s behavior and learning in school, at home, and in the community. The evaluation can guide teachers, therapists, and you to better help your child achieve his or her potential.

Wrap up

Links have been included in the blog to the sources of my information. Some of the information comes from personal experience. All of my children have executive functioning issues.  The executive functioning is also impacted by their working memory issues and ADHD. Knowing my children have executive functioning issues has really given me a lot of patience since I now understand their limitations and issues.  I don't get so annoyed when I have to repeat myself 6 times or get angry when I ask for a task to be completed and it never gets done. I understand now and know the problem.  It has made me think about how I parent my children, my expectations of them working independently, and what I need to do to help them in the future.

I am including a link to a list of accommodations written up by a school district in New York that covers all areas of executive functioning and has accommodations from Kindergarten to 12th grade. It is a great resource for both the homeschooled and public schooled child.  The link can be found here and it is a PDF.  I am also including a link (click here) to a redacted version of Margaret's last neuropsych report. It is not as comprehensive as it could be because all my children had neuropsych testing completed three years ago but it gives you a good idea how a report should be written and what to expect. I hope this has been help and always feel free to send me questions in the comment section!